Prior to the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation, religious images were used to showcase the grandeur of God and his Heavens. To the Church, depictions of the afterlife, saints, and stories from the Bible were used as a way to explain the teachings of Christ; as well as the punishment for sinful behavior.
The lavishness of Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece is unquestionable. The triptych is composed of twelve panels, with two hinged shutters. Though the imagery is diverse, for the purposes of this exhibition, the image of Christ surrounded by Mary and John the Baptist is most important. Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece encompasses two of the grievances of the Protestant Reformation: First, the figures of Christ, Mary and John the Baptist were elevated past earthly representations. The three figures in particular are clothed in elaborate and ornate robes - encrusted with jewels and of the finest fabric. This type of representation of the heavenly was typical prior to the Counter-Reformation in the 16th and 17th centuries. Godliness was intended to be apparent through the clothing worn by saints and was used to separate the heavenly from the common. And secondly, the triptych, a development particular to the Northern Renaissance, was used to create a sense of drama and excitement in the viewers, of whom were often only allowed to see the interior panels once or twice a year on special occasions - such as a feast or the presence of royalty.
The physical separation from important aspects of one's religion was another major complaint by those who supported the Protestant Reformation because they felt like the Church used the separation to maintain power over the illiterate masses. Images, many of the Protestant Reformers believed, were meant to be strictly educational and available to all. Protestant Reformers also demanded a printed text of their Bible in the spoken vernacular as opposed to the Latin that the Catholic priests read.
As the story goes, Van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece was a commission originally given to his brother. The two worked together but Van Eyck’s hand prevailed. The altarpiece would have been set above the people, which made the congregation literally look up to the elaborate scene of grandeur. Thankfully, the altarpiece was protected during the Protestant Reformation as many similar altarpieces were destroyed during the iconoclastic riots of the 16th century. The rest of the altarpiece references different saints and stories, as well as architectural details surrounding the Adam and Eve panels. The Northern Renaissance favored these kinds of details, as well as the landscape scenes in the lower panels.
The lavishness of Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece is unquestionable. The triptych is composed of twelve panels, with two hinged shutters. Though the imagery is diverse, for the purposes of this exhibition, the image of Christ surrounded by Mary and John the Baptist is most important. Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece encompasses two of the grievances of the Protestant Reformation: First, the figures of Christ, Mary and John the Baptist were elevated past earthly representations. The three figures in particular are clothed in elaborate and ornate robes - encrusted with jewels and of the finest fabric. This type of representation of the heavenly was typical prior to the Counter-Reformation in the 16th and 17th centuries. Godliness was intended to be apparent through the clothing worn by saints and was used to separate the heavenly from the common. And secondly, the triptych, a development particular to the Northern Renaissance, was used to create a sense of drama and excitement in the viewers, of whom were often only allowed to see the interior panels once or twice a year on special occasions - such as a feast or the presence of royalty.
The physical separation from important aspects of one's religion was another major complaint by those who supported the Protestant Reformation because they felt like the Church used the separation to maintain power over the illiterate masses. Images, many of the Protestant Reformers believed, were meant to be strictly educational and available to all. Protestant Reformers also demanded a printed text of their Bible in the spoken vernacular as opposed to the Latin that the Catholic priests read.
As the story goes, Van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece was a commission originally given to his brother. The two worked together but Van Eyck’s hand prevailed. The altarpiece would have been set above the people, which made the congregation literally look up to the elaborate scene of grandeur. Thankfully, the altarpiece was protected during the Protestant Reformation as many similar altarpieces were destroyed during the iconoclastic riots of the 16th century. The rest of the altarpiece references different saints and stories, as well as architectural details surrounding the Adam and Eve panels. The Northern Renaissance favored these kinds of details, as well as the landscape scenes in the lower panels.
It has long been speculated that Caravaggio would have had access to Dürer’s woodcuts, as they were portable and widely available, however Dürer’s woodcut provides undeniable evidence of the influence of Dürer on Caravaggio. The upper right hand corner of the woodcut shows the very same exchange between Christ, Judas, and a Roman soldier as Caravaggio’s The Taking of Christ. In addition, Caravaggio’s piece reflects other crucial elements of Dürer’s woodcut such as the single source of artificial light, an inclusion of a torchbearer, as well as a naturalistic approach to the depiction of Christ’s face. In addition, Caravaggio recreates the tree in the background of Dürer’s woodcut, included to remind the viewer of the fate of the betrayer, however it is only partially visible in Caravaggio’s darkened background. Despite the similarities, Caravaggio tones down much of the violence that is present in Dürer’s woodcut in favor of a contemplative and restrained view of the arrest. Caravaggio's piece maintains a sense of excitement while allowing the viewer to contemplate on the scene before them.
After meetings of the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563, the Catholic Church promoted a more direct form of artwork - free from excessive decoration with a focus on the accurate depiction of the Biblical story. Both Dürer and Caravaggio utilized naturalism in their work, though Dürer's work was before the time of the Counter- Reformation. Caravaggio's naturalism, however, aligned with the tenets of the reformed Catholic Church and allowed him to gain stylistic favor with the Church despite his rather bad reputation.
Dürer’s woodcut was created as part of his Small Passions series that chronicled the life of Christ. The woodcut was meant to allow many people to view his work. Dürer’s woodcuts are notable for their incredible amount of emotion, intensity, and strain.
After meetings of the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563, the Catholic Church promoted a more direct form of artwork - free from excessive decoration with a focus on the accurate depiction of the Biblical story. Both Dürer and Caravaggio utilized naturalism in their work, though Dürer's work was before the time of the Counter- Reformation. Caravaggio's naturalism, however, aligned with the tenets of the reformed Catholic Church and allowed him to gain stylistic favor with the Church despite his rather bad reputation.
Dürer’s woodcut was created as part of his Small Passions series that chronicled the life of Christ. The woodcut was meant to allow many people to view his work. Dürer’s woodcuts are notable for their incredible amount of emotion, intensity, and strain.
Caravaggio's Doubting Thomas shares many of the characteristics of his Taking of Christ. The figures are pushed to the foreground once again and surrounded by a nondescript black background. In addition, the figures are highly naturalistic. The faces of the men are not idealized but rather individualized with wrinkles and varied textures to describe the hair and skin.
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The clothing is once again meticulously rendered with attention to period costuming and a focus on the compositional balance created by the three shadowed figures clothed in reds and burgundies against the light figure of Christ, wrapped in a light beige cloth. Caravaggio attracts a sickened sense from the viewer who is drawn into the scene on an intimate level as Thomas pokes his finger into the gaping hole on Christ's side from his crucifixion where, according to the story, a Roman guard stabbed him in his side to check if he was dead. Instead of seeing the age-old story of the Doubting Thomas suggested through iconography, we see the actual moment where Christ proves his physicality to Thomas by allowing him to touch his wounds. This type of intimacy was a new way for the artist to cater to the demands of the new regiments of religious art. For some, however, Caravaggio took the doctrines a step too far toward naturalism by not idealizing the holy figures in his works. Caravaggio intentionally created a lifelike representation of the people in his works in order to make the messages of the stories very clear and relatable for the public. Rather than portraying the figures in ornate robes, like in van Eyck's earlier Ghent Altarpiece, Caravaggio allows the viewer to see in to the moment before them as it unfolds on their level, rather than through the eyes of the Church.
Caravaggio painted Doubting Thomas in 1601-1602 as part of a series of works about the life of Christ, St. Peter, and St. Matthew. The works all feature the same tenesbro, naturalism, and sharp contrast that create the caravaggesque style, which other artists will emulate. In the beginning of his career, many critics agreed that Caravaggio’s style was too dark, too somber, and the naturalism too realistic for religious scenes. Despite this, the efficacy of the paintings overcame the criticism and his style dispersed to other Baroque artists.
Caravaggio painted Doubting Thomas in 1601-1602 as part of a series of works about the life of Christ, St. Peter, and St. Matthew. The works all feature the same tenesbro, naturalism, and sharp contrast that create the caravaggesque style, which other artists will emulate. In the beginning of his career, many critics agreed that Caravaggio’s style was too dark, too somber, and the naturalism too realistic for religious scenes. Despite this, the efficacy of the paintings overcame the criticism and his style dispersed to other Baroque artists.
Caravaggio's Entombment of Christ depicts the moment in the story of Christ directly after the crucifixion of Christ as Joseph, an atypical Elderly Virgin Mary, Nicodemus, and Mary Magdalene remove Christ from the Cross to bring him to his burial site. Caravaggio's depiction follows his style of naturalism and brings life to the moment of mourning. Darkened chiaroscuro adds a sense of foreboding and seriousness to this work, like his others. Caravaggio uses tenebroso to push the figures further into the foreground by surrounding the figures in a dark, nondescript background. The black background contrasts distinctly with the illuminated figures in the far front. By pushing the figures to the far front, or foreground, Caravaggio introduces the figures to the viewers' space. Caravaggio makes the scene personal, he invites you into the action and makes the display of mourning more than a just a spectacle to observe. Christ falls limp in the arms of his followers while they mourn their loss and due to the proximity in which the viewer is to the figures in the painting, Caravaggio makes it a communal loss. Christ’s body is laid out before the viewer to view and contemplate – making it a very effective teaching tool. Following the Council of Trent, didactic images became the most important images for the Church. Part of the success attributed to the image has to do with the inclusiveness of the composition, but it also relies on Caravaggio’s naturalistic figures.
The image uses naturalism to make the image feel tangible. The faces are aged and expressive. Theatricality in the figures who outstretch their arms and bow their heads in sorrow communicates the severity of the situation while the central figure looks straight out from the picture plane and locks eyes with the viewer. In addition, because the scene is so dynamic and active, the viewer is engaged and eager to understand what is happening. Before Caravaggio, and works like his Entombment that encourage the viewer to be an active participant in the scene, art was often used to create scenes of pomp and ceremony in order to leave the viewer in awe of God and the Church. |
Peter Paul Rubens copy
of Caravaggio's Entombment is a study of form, of chiaroscuro,
and of composition. Rubens is known for his tendency to study great works of
art by copying them with his own "improvements" to the piece. In this
case, the most notable difference is the repositioning of the figure in the
back of the group who originally had outstretched arms and the repositioning of
the figure on the far left supporting Christ's head. The figure in the back of
Caravaggio’s piece adds theatricality to the work; she reaches to the Heavens
and connects the two worlds. By moving her closer into the cluster of people,
Rubens quiets the piece and removes the reference to the Heavens. Another
change lies in the positioning of Christ’s body. In Caravaggio's work, Christ's
head, while slumped, is unnaturally raised. Rubens corrects this by the
repositioning of the figure to support the head of Christ - now in a more
severe slump than before. He also suggests the movement to the tomb more
directly by placing the foot of the left-most figure on the lower level, rather
than having all the figures behind Christ's body.
Strangely, the changes Rubens makes to Caravaggio’s Entombment detach the figures from the viewer – which seems to be the paramount accomplishment of Caravaggio’s Entombment. Rubens appears to focus primarily on the positioning of the figures and reworking the composition rather than the connection between viewer and scene. Rubens orients the faces of the figure away from the viewer. The figure in the back that originally had her hands raised toward the heavens instead faces downward, next to the depiction of the Virgin Mary. Mary is also shown in a more traditional manner – as a young woman dressed in blue. In addition, the center figure holding the legs of Christ has a slight but significant change to the direction of his gaze. Instead of looking out toward the viewer, he looks forward – as if lost in thought. Lastly, Caravaggio’s tenesbroso is lightened and the reduces the amount of contrast on the figures – a background is suggested and a unsettling figure reaches out from behind the stone that sits in front of the tomb. By deepening the picture plane, Rubens further separates the image from the viewer. Rubens instead concentrates on the muscularity of the figures and has an attention to drapery. Much of what Rubens creates is more painterly than what Caravaggio creates. While Rubens is using some forms of naturalism in the faces of his figures, he does seem to idealize the figures a bit by removing some humanizing features. For example, Rubens has removed the protruding veins from the hands of Christ and the ankles of the center figure. He also softens the contours on the faces and bodies – which, in part, is due to the lightened chiaroscuro. |
The Northern Renaissance had still life at its core. Dutch and Flemish artists like Joachim Beuckelaer and Pieter Aertsen created incredibly detailed works with a focus on still life. For the Dutch and Flemish, still life paintings were a way to represent the growing economic influence of the North and expound upon the wonders of the world. These immensely popular works made their way to the South where the next generation of artists used them as sources of inspiration.
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Caravaggio's Supper at Emmaus reflects a clear influence from the Northern still life renaissance artists. On the table is a finely rendered feast that shares many characteristics with a number of paintings by Beuckelaer, Aertsen, and other Dutch or Flemish artists. Most notably, the tray of fruits hangs off the side of the table. This technique was used to push the elements of the still life out toward the viewer and suggest a more bountiful display. In addition, the bread, glass of water, and chicken are each very detailed and highly contrasted against the white table cloth. Caravaggio uses these details in conjunction with his trademark naturalism - shown in the aged and wary faces of the apostles and their worn clothing - to create an image that invites the contemporary viewer in to the moment with Christ and his apostles directly after his resurrection. By inviting the viewer in to the moment, much like The Taking of Christ, Caravaggio makes Christ and his followers attainable to the viewer in a way that was new for the public.
Velàzquez was another influenced by the naturalism, extreme use of chiaroscuro, and darkened background used by Caravaggio. In his Old Woman Cooking Eggs, Velàzquez exhibits a very similar composition to that of Caravaggio. He uses the same isolated and cropped composition that includes the viewer into the narrative, a darkened background, strong use of chiaroscuro, and was also influenced by the Dutch and Flemish still life paintings - as seen in this image.
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Velázquez uses a
strong, singular light source that illuminates the woman while leaving the boy
and the background shrouded in shadow. Velázquez uses heightened realism in his
genre scene to glorify the various textures and forms of the scene. Each item
has a distinct texture and sheen that creates an incredibly inclusive scene.
The figures and table create an oval-like shape in the composition that draws
the viewer in. The objects on the table include the viewer by making them feel
as if the scene is taking place directly before them.
In addition, the rendering of the figures focuses on naturalism like Caravaggio used in his works. The hands of the figures are particularly well documented. Velázquez successfully appropriated techniques seen in Caravaggio’s work to use in his own work to achieve different goals. Genre scenes had a very different purpose than religious imagery. Religious imagery’s new goal of didacticism and correctness was pushed by the Catholic Church in order to clean up their image following the Reformations. Genre scenes, however, did not directly benefit a single patron or assemblage. Velázquez’s Seville period, which includes both Old Woman Cooking Eggs and Velázquez’s famous Water Seller, instilled a sense of heroism into the scenes of everyday life. This heroism, highlighted by the way in which Velázquez used light and shadow in his carravaggesque composition, is what led to Velázquez’s role in the Spanish court.
Notably, it is unlikely that Velázquez received his knowledge directly from Caravaggio’s work but rather through other artists who emulated Caravaggio’s work – which would explain the juxtaposition of style and intention when comparing Caravaggio’s work to Velázquez’s work. Velázquez painted Old Woman Cooking Eggs early in his career when he was around 18 years old. During this time, the Counter-Reformation had already made its changes to the qualifications of religious art. In Spain, the monarchy was about to undergo a dramatic change in leadership from Philip III to Philip IV who was the major patron of Velàzquez.
In addition, the rendering of the figures focuses on naturalism like Caravaggio used in his works. The hands of the figures are particularly well documented. Velázquez successfully appropriated techniques seen in Caravaggio’s work to use in his own work to achieve different goals. Genre scenes had a very different purpose than religious imagery. Religious imagery’s new goal of didacticism and correctness was pushed by the Catholic Church in order to clean up their image following the Reformations. Genre scenes, however, did not directly benefit a single patron or assemblage. Velázquez’s Seville period, which includes both Old Woman Cooking Eggs and Velázquez’s famous Water Seller, instilled a sense of heroism into the scenes of everyday life. This heroism, highlighted by the way in which Velázquez used light and shadow in his carravaggesque composition, is what led to Velázquez’s role in the Spanish court.
Notably, it is unlikely that Velázquez received his knowledge directly from Caravaggio’s work but rather through other artists who emulated Caravaggio’s work – which would explain the juxtaposition of style and intention when comparing Caravaggio’s work to Velázquez’s work. Velázquez painted Old Woman Cooking Eggs early in his career when he was around 18 years old. During this time, the Counter-Reformation had already made its changes to the qualifications of religious art. In Spain, the monarchy was about to undergo a dramatic change in leadership from Philip III to Philip IV who was the major patron of Velàzquez.